Introduction

SoTL research questions explicitly seek to understand teaching and learning in context. The oft-cited Hutchings (2000) typology of SoTL questions, including “What is” and “What works,” could be described as evaluation-type questions. In other words, an instructor may seek to evaluate their teaching by describing a particular learning phenomenon that occurs in their class (what is happening?), or assess the effectiveness of a teaching strategy or intervention (what works, or what works better?). However, disseminating our inquiries as scholarship requires us to go beyond description to analysis and interpretation, and to situate our findings within a particular literature or discourse, thereby contributing to a broader understanding of how or why something is happening or working (or not). As Ciccone (2018) argues, a good SoTL question “shows the potential to go beyond the problem from whence it arose to elucidate some key insights into the big issues about student learning and the frameworks that would explain them” (p. 2018). Fortunately, there are many other fields, including but not limited to the field of (K–12) educational research, which have developed language, definitions, and frameworks to help us communicate and connect our research approaches and findings to broader issues and understandings. This is where theories about knowledge and learning can play a role.

Educational theories are a set of principles that shape how we create curriculum, employ pedagogy, interact with our students, and frame research questions. As educators, our perspectives are shaped by the theories we subscribe to, and impact how we use technology in the classroom. The lens through which we develop curriculum also shapes the questions we ask about educational technology in our teaching and learning. Miller-Young and Yeo (2015) describe how some categories of learning theories tend to fit well with certain research methodologies. In this section, we briefly explore a few key theories and consider how they may influence our SoTL work, specifically related to technology. The examples in this section are just that—examples. They are meant to provide framing for developing your own SoTL studies on educational technology grounded in theory.

Connecting Learning Theories to Educational Technology

Behaviourism

The first theory we will address is behaviourism. Behaviourism focuses on how a setting impacts a person’s actions. In other words, “The goal of behavioristic teaching methods is to manipulate the environment of a subject… in an effort to change the subject’s observable behavior” (Brau, 2018, para. 1). Many psychologists have worked on behaviourism including Pavlov and Skinner. While not all aspects of behaviorism are widely used today, there are still elements that educators incorporate into classes and may unknowingly use with educational technology. For example, in a classroom, the teacher may use a visual on a presentation slide to remind students that certain content is particularly important. The teacher may use music to help students stay calm before an exam, or, when a student gets a question correct during a review session, they may be rewarded with fireworks on the screen. These are examples of positive reinforcement. Additionally, gamification and learning analytics are broad examples of pedagogical approaches that fit within behaviourism.

Examples of SoTL educational technology questions based on a behaviourist view of teaching and learning include:

• Do students spend more time in discussions, as seen in learning analytics, after asynchronous video discussions are added to the curriculum?
• How do note-taking strategies differ when students take notes by hand versus on a tablet with a stylus?
• Do students change their behaviour after using virtual reality to practice interview skills? Why or why not?
• How does electronic note-taking impact student studying behaviour?

Cognitivism

Cognitivism is another widely used category of educational theory. This theory focuses on the internal thought process of learners and encourages mental strategies for learning including “perception, executive processes, working memory, encoding, and long-term memory” (Michela, 2018, para. 4). What all the mental strategies have in common is the emphasis on transferring information to students. Within cognitivism, stored knowledge is key to learning. Educators who use cognitivism to frame their instruction may be concerned with how technology can either benefit or hinder the mental focus required for learning or how technology creates an external storage for knowledge and may inhibit use of human memory. Some educators may see technology as a distraction and therefore something to be avoided. Other educators may see technology as a tool that can aid students with learning when the technology is built to support engagement such as using a quiz tool for retrieval practice.

Examples of SoTL educational technology questions based in a cognitivist view of teaching and learning are:

• How does electronic note taking impact students’ readiness for a pop quiz?
• Does an in-class electronic quizzing game benefit memorization?
• Do students find the use of color on presentation slides distracting?
• How do students visualize three-dimensional structures from the two-dimensional representations in their textbook?
• Do students retain more information when reading an electronic book versus a print book?

Constructivism

Cognitivism is another widely used category of educational theory. This theory focuses on the internal thought process of learners and encourages mental strategies for learning, including “perception, executive processes, working memory, encoding, and long-term memory” (Michela, 2018, para. 4). What these mental strategies have in common is an emphasis on transferring information to students. Within cognitivism, stored knowledge is key to learning. Educators who use cognitivism to frame their instruction may be concerned with how technology can either benefit or hinder the mental focus required for learning, or how technology creates an external storage space for knowledge and may the inhibit use of human memory. Some educators may see technology as a distraction and therefore something to be avoided. Other educators may see technology as a tool that can aid students in learning when the technology is built to support engagement, such as using a quiz tool for retrieval practice.

Examples of SoTL educational technology questions based on a cognitivist view of teaching and learning are:

• How does electronic note-taking impact students’ readiness for a pop quiz?
• Does an in-class electronic quizzing game benefit memorization?
• Do students find the use of colour on presentation slides distracting?
• How do students visualize three-dimensional structures from the two-dimensional representations in their textbook?
• Do students retain more information when reading an electronic book versus a print book?

Humanism

Humanism is a fourth category of learning theory that takes the whole person into account, including their values. Instead of focusing solely on the person’s thinking abilities (Miller-Young & Yeo, 2015), Maslow (1970) and others emphasized that learners can be trusted and that it is important to meet students’ needs so they may reach their full potential. Educators who align with humanism tend to value student choice, connection, safety, and a positive learning environment.

Examples of SoTL educational technology questions based on a humanist view of teaching and learning are:

• How do students feel when they engage in a full-class quiz review game with a visible leaderboard?
• Are students comfortable when asked to record a video response to questions posed in an online class?
• What would make students more comfortable recording themselves for asynchronous video discussions?
• How do students build relationships with their classmates in an online class?

Social Learning

Social Learning Theory, developed by Albert Bandura (1977), also has specific implications for the use of technology in learning environments. Bandura emphasized that individuals learn through observing, modeling, and imitating others. “…most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action” (Bandura, 1977, p. 22). Examples include showing a video of famous speeches so students can identify patterns of great orators, looking at images posted on social media to identify fashion trends, and reading a book with characters that cause students to reflect on their own actions.

Examples of SoTL educational technology questions based in a social learning view of teaching and learning are:

• Do students see themselves in the digital material used in class?
• How do the people represented in digital course materials impact students’ willingness to engage with the content?
• How do students learn to interact with their peers in online discussions?
• How does interaction through the learning management system change students’ perceptions of course content?

Experiential Learning

Another widely used learning theory is experiential learning, which falls within the category of constructivism. Kolb (1984) emphasized that individuals learn best through experience. Kolb identified a four-stage cycle of learning:

• Concrete experience: where the learner experiences something,
• Reflective observation: where the learner steps back and reflects on the experience,
• Abstract conceptualization: where the learner works to understand the experience, and
• Active experimentation: where the learner participates in the learning again using their new knowledge.

Examples of SoTL educational technology questions based in an experiential view of teaching and learning are:

• What experiences are students having in the learning management system?
• What challenges do students face in transferring skills from a virtual dissection to an in-person lab?
• In what ways do reflections on virtual experiences differ from reflections on in-person experiences?
• How is abstract conceptualization impacted by virtual learning experiences?

In addition to general educational theories, there are educational theories that are specific to the use of technology for teaching and learning. These include connectivism, mobile learning (m-learning), and social mobile learning (Koole, 2009; McCollum, 2016).

Educational Technology Theories

In this section, two educational technology theories are presented as examples. Many more could be included, and we hope you explore additional theories to find what works best for your SoTL work. Additionally, it is necessary to recognize that theories build on one another and are interconnected. Connectivism and m-learning build on earlier theoretical work.

Connectivism

“Connectivism presents a model of learning that acknowledges the tectonic shifts in society, where learning is no longer an internal, individualistic activity. How people work and function is altered when new tools are utilized” (Siemens, 2005, p. 9). In other words, the internet and the networks and connections it makes cause learning to be dependent on an individual’s ability to navigate the network and connections (i.e., the internet).

Examples of SoTL educational technology questions based on a connectivist view of teaching and learning are:

• What connections are students making with course material when they conduct research online?
• How do students find content online?
• What impact does a student’s previous experience conducting online research have on their participation in class discussions?
• What materials do students bring into class discussions? Where are they locating these materials?

Mobile Learning (m-Learning)

Mobile learning, or m-learning, is the idea that students use their own personal mobile devices for engagement with others and content during the learning process (Crompton, 2013). More specifically, m-learning is “learning across multiple contexts, through social and content interactions, using personal electronic devices” (Crompton, 2013, p. 4). M-learning emphasizes convenience and the ability of students to work anywhere and anytime while staying socially connected with peers and content.

Examples of SoTL educational technology questions based on an m-learning view of teaching and learning are:

• How frequently do students interact with their classmates?
• Does the frequency of interaction between students impact feelings of connection in the course?
• Where do students typically study?
• How is the location where students study impacting how they interpret the course material?
• What are the effects of screen size and resolution on learning visual material like anatomy diagrams? What do students do to overcome challenges?

These examples are provided to show how our understanding of learning theory can affect the kinds of questions we choose to investigate in considering the value of technology for teaching and learning. Theory is not always explicitly used in SoTL; some chapters in this book are explicit about their use of theory, and some are not. Ultimately, theories serve as tools to think about what is happening during the teaching and learning process, and can strengthen SoTL work by informing the literature review as well as the design of a study. Different theories can illuminate learning in different ways.

Conclusion

While the focus of this chapter is on educational theories, theoretical frameworks are not limited to ideas developed in education. In Chapter 5, Alice Watanabe gives an example of how theoretical work by a political thinker (Hannah Arendt) can form the foundation for a SoTL study focused on educational technology. This chapter stands alone as an example of how theory undergirds SoTL educational technology research. During the planning of this book, we (the editors) wanted to include a section on theory because of our belief that theory is essential to grounding a study. However, during our review of the literature, it became clear that there is a gap in the explicit use of theory to inform methodological design. Chapter 2 expands on the use of theory and asks readers to consider how best to communicate the selection of methodology (grounded in theory) and teaching choices.

Other chapters in the book use theory in various ways. In Chapter 8, Brett McCollum used phenomenography as a theoretical framework for designing a SoTL study. Phenomenography is a qualitative research framework, but McCollum explains how it can be used as a grounding theory as well. Chapter 9 explicitly discusses posthuman theory and actor-network theory and connects these theories to the study design. In Chapter 12, Riley J. Petillion and W. Stephen McNeil used social agency theory to inform their approach to video creation. SoTL studies were later conducted on the videos.

We hope the various ways this book captures the use of theory inspire you to consider the theoretical perspective you are bringing to your work and how you use theory to inform your SoTL work.

References

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. General Learning Press.

Brau, B., Fox, N., & Robinson, E. (2018). Behaviorism. In R. Kimmons & S. Caskurlu (Eds.), The students’ guide to learning design and research. EdTech Books. https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/behaviorism

Crompton, H. (2013). A historical overview of mobile learning: Toward learner-centered education. In Z. L. Berge & L. Y. Muilenburg (Eds.), Handbook of mobile learning (pp. 3–14). Routledge.

Elliott, S. N., Kratochwill, T. R., Littlefield Cook, J., & Travers, J. (2000). Educational psychology: Effective teaching, effective learning (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill College.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice Hall.

Koole, M. L. (2009). A model for framing mobile learning. In M. Ally (Ed.), Mobile learning: Transforming the delivery of education and training (pp. 25–47). AU Press.

Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). Harper & Row.

McCollum, B. (2016). Situated science learning for higher level learning with mobile devices. In D. Kennepohl (Ed.), Teaching science online: Practical guidance for effective instruction and lab work. Stylus Publishing. https://sty.presswarehouse.com/books/BookDetail.aspx?productID=393126

Michela, E. (2018). Cognitivism. In R. Kimmons & S. Caskurlu (Eds.), The students’ guide to learning design and research. EdTech Books. https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/cognitivism

Miller-Young, J., & Yeo, M. (2015). Conceptualizing and communicating SoTL: A framework for the field. Teaching and Learning Inquiry, 3(2), 37–53. https://doi.org/10.20343/teachlearninqu.3.2.37

Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1), 1–9. https://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_05/Jan_05.pdf